Thursday, January 27, 2011
Sunday, January 23, 2011
Ap Euro (p780-788)
I. The Crimean War (1853-1856)
o Impetus for change originated in war
o Causes: Crimean War rooted in the desire of Russia to extend its influence over the
Ottoman Empire
o Two disputes led to conflict: 1st- OE declared protective oversight for RCs not
Orthodox Christians, Russia occupied OE to protect Orthodox Christians; 2nd-weak OE
made Russia want to expand influence at the cost of Ottoman demise through the eastern
Mediterranean but opposed by Fr. and Britain who declared war on Russia in alliance w/
the Ottomans to protect their commercial interests
o Austria and Prussia remained neutral
o CW was first war covered by the press, but both sides conducted the conflict ineptly w/
poorly equipped/commanded armies bogged down along the Crimean coast of the Black
Sea
o Finally, the Russian fortress of Sevastopol fell to the Fr. and British
1. Peace Settlement and Long-Term Results
o Treaty of Paris required Russia to surrender territory near the mouth of the Danube
recognizing the neutrality of the Black Sea, renounce its claims of protection over
orthodox Christians in the OE
o Russian image of invincibility shattered- Austria forced Russia to withdraw from
Moldavia and Walchavia
o Concert of Europe as a means of dealing w/ IR was shattered, great powers feared
revolution less than earlier in the century and for 25 years after European affairs were
unstable producing a period of adventurism
II. Reforms in the Ottoman Empire
o Short-lived Napoleonic invasion of OE province of Egypt sparked a drive for change
o Sultan issued a decree called the Hatt-i Sharif that attempted to reorganize the empire’s
administration and military along European lines and opened the Tanzimat
(reorganization of the era of the OE)
o Reforms liberalized the economy, ended the practice of tax farming, and sought to
eliminate corruption
o Hatt-i Sharif also extended civic equality to OE subjects regardless of religion
o Made it easier for Muslims to enter into commercial agreements with non-Muslims
o Another reform decree called the Hatti-I Humayun promulgated at the end of the
Crimean War and under the influence of Britain and France spelled out rights of non-
Muslims more explicitly giving them equal opportunity for edu., employment, and
military service
o Decree abolished torture and allowed foreigners to acquire some property
o OE tried to copy European legal/military institutions and secular values of liberalism
o Imperial gov’t took these steps to elicit loyalty of Christian subjects at a time when
nationalism was making inroads
o OE broke down the millet system and defined all citizens as subjects rather than as
members of religious communities
o Difficult to implement reforms: local rulers were virtually independent of Istanbul,
power struggles developed among countries and leaders, and the ulema tried to maintain
the rule of Islamic law
o OE failed to achieve genuine political strength and stability –implementation problems,
traditional institutions, nationalism
o Inability of OE to retain power was demonstrated by the Balkan Wars that resulted in
Russian or Austrian dominance over most of the empire’s European holdings
o Response to these defeats was greater efforts to modernize the army and the
economy to build infrastructure
o In 1876, reformers persuaded the sultan to proclaim an Ottoman constitution calling for a
parliament consisting of an elected chamber of deputies and an appointed senate but left
the sultan’s power intact making the arg that European political arrangements as well as
tech accounted for European strength
o New sultan soon rejected these steps toward constitutionalism-military officers carried
out a revolution against the authority of the sultan
o Young Turks-group of reformist officers came to power w. another program to
modernize the empire, they were in charge when WWI broke out and their decision to
enter the war on the side of the Central Powers led to the empire’s defeat and collapse
o Increasing secularization of the government occurred which south less to question
the Islamic foundations of society than to reduce the influence of the Muslim
religious authorities on the state
III. Italian Unification
o Nationalists had long wanted to unite the small, absolutists principalities of the Italian
peninsula into a single state
A. Romantic Republicans
o After the Congress of Vienna, secret republican societies were founded
throughout Italy, the most famous of which was the Carbonari
o Following failure of nationalist uprisings in 1831, the leadership of romantic
republican nationalism passed to Giuseppe Mazzini-most important nationalist
leader in Europe, declaring “Nationality is the role assigned by God to a people
in the work of humanity.”
o In 1831, he founded the Young Italy Society to drive Austria from the peninsula
and establish an Italian republic
o During the 1830s and 1840s, Mazzini and his fellow republican Guiseppe
Garibaldi led the insurrections, involved w/ Roman Republic of 1849
o Throughout the 1850s, they conducted guerilla warfare
o Republican nationalism frightened moderate Italians, who wanted to rid
themselves of Austrian domination, but not establish a republic
o Looked to papacy to sponsor unification, but the solution became impossible
after the experience of Pius IX with the Roman Republic
o By 1860, the Italian peninsula was transformed into a nation-state under a
constitutional monarchy, process carried out not by romantic republican
nationalists, but by Count Camillo Cavour-moderately liberal prime minister of
Piedmont
o His method was force of arms tied to secret diplomacy
B. Cavour’s Policy
o Piedmont (Kingdom of Sardinia) in northwestern Italy was the most independent
state on the peninsula
o Congress of Vienna restored the kingdom as a buffer b/t Fr. and Austria
o King Albert of Piedmont twice unsuccessfully fought Austria and after 2nd defeat he
abdicated the throne in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II who chose Count
Cavour as his prime minister
o Cavour begun political life as a strong conservative, but moved toward moderate
liberal position
o Made a fortune by investing in railroads, editing newspaper, and reforming ag
o Nationalist of a new breed who had no respect for Mazzini’s ideals rejecting
republicanism
o It was economic/material progress that required a large, unified state on the Italian
peninsula
o Cavour formed the nationalist Society-established chapters in other Italian states to
press for unification under the leadership of Piedmont
o PM believed Italy could be unified only w/ help of France, accession of Napoleon III
in France opened the way for aid
1. French Sympathies
o Cavour used CW to bring Italy into European politics, Piedmont joined the conflict
on the side of France and Britain and sent 10,000 troops to the front
o Small but significant participation in the war allowed Cavour to raise the Italian
question at the Paris conference-left w/o diplomatic reward, but his
intelligence/political capacity impressed everyone, including Napoleon III
During rest of decade, he achieved further int’l respect for opposing plots of mazzini,
who was still attempting to lead nationalist uprisings
o Cavour represented a moderate liberal alternative to both republicanism and
reactionary absolutism in Italy
o In 1858, an Italian attempted to assassinate Napoleon III causing the Fr. emperor
newly concerned about the Italian issue
o Saw himself continuing his more famous uncle’s liberation of the peninsula
o Saw Piedmont as a potential ally against Austria
o In July 1858, Cavour and Napoleon III met in southern France-plotted to provoke a
war in Italy that would permit them to defeat Austria
o Formal treaty in Dec. confirmed the agreement-France was to receive Fr.-speaking
Nice and Savoy from Piedmont for its aid
2. War with Austria
o In early 1859, tension grew b/t Austria and Piedmont as Piedmont mobilized its army
o Austria demanded demobilization, Piedmont used demand as claim that Austria was
provoking a war and France intervened to aid its ally
o Austrians were defeated at Magenta and Solferino and revolutiosn broke out in
Tuscany, Modena, Parma and the Romagna provinces of the Papal States
o With the Austrians in retreat and the new revolutionary regimes calling for union w/
Piedmont, Napoleon III feared too extensive a Piedmontese victory
o He independently concluded a peace with Austria: Piedmont received Lombardy, but
Venetia remained under Austrian control
o Cavour felt betrayed by France, but the war had driven Austria from most of N. Italy
o Later that summer, the other states voted to unite w/ Piedmont
3. Garibaldi’s Campaign
o At this point, forces of romantic republican nationalism compelled Cavour to pursue
the complete unification of N. and S. Italy
o Garibaldi landed in Sicily w/ more than 1,000 troops outfitted in the north
o Garibaldi hoped to form a republican Italy and attacked the mainland controlling the
city and kingdom of Naples
o Cavour rushed Piedmontese troops south to confront Garibaldi, conquering the rest of
the Papal States except the area around Rome, protected fro the pope by the Fr.
o Garibaldi’s nationalism won out over his republicanism, and he accepted
Piedmontese domination
C. The New Italian State
o In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy-Cavour died 3 months
later
o Italy had been more nearly conquered than united by Piedmont
o Republicans resented the treatment of Garibaldi, clericals resented the conquest of
the Papal States. In the south, armed resistance against the imposition of the
Piedmontese administration continued
o Economies of N. and S. Italy were incompatible-S. was rural, poor and backward
while the N. was industrializing and linked to that of the rest of Europe
o Social structures of the 2 regions reflected those differences with large
landholders/peasants dominant in the S. and an urban working class emerging in the
N.
o Political F/W of united Italy couldn’t overcome problems, constitution provided for a
conservative constitutional monarchy-Parliament consisted of 2 houses: a senate
appointed by the king and a chamber of deputies elected on a narrow franchise
o Ministers responsible to the monarch, not to Parliament
o Political leaders often avoided major problems, in place of efficient, progressive
gov’t such as Cavour had brought to Piedmont, a system called transformismo
developed-political opponents were “transformed” into government supporters
through bribery, favors, or a seat, Italian ptix=corruption
o Unification was incomplete, many Italians believed other territories should be added
(Venetia and Rome). Venetia was gained in return for Italy’s alliance w/ Prussia in
the Austro-Prussian War. Rome and the papacy continued to be guarded by French
troops until they were withdrawn during the Franco-Prussian War
o Italian state then annexed Rome and made it the capital, papacy confined itself to the
Vatican and remained hostile to the Italian state
o By 1870, only the small province of Trent and the city of Trieste, both ruled by
Austria remained outside Italy
o These areas were not significant, but they fueled the continued hostility of Italian
nationalists toward Austria
o The desire to liberate Italia Irredenta, or “unredeemed Italy,” was one reason for the
Italian support of the Allies against Austria and Germany during WWI
Saturday, January 15, 2011
Friday, January 14, 2011
Tuesday, January 11, 2011
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (pg760-764)
Early Socialism
· 19th C socialism advocates lacked meaningful following and doctrines confusing to contemporaries.
· Early ideas appear on European margins; came to assume great importance
· Applaud productivity of industrialism but deny capitalism’s ability to distribute goods
· Capitalism: mismanagement, low wage, misdistribution, suffering
· Society as community, not conglomerate of selfish individuals.
Utopian Socialism
· Utopian: visionary ideas, advocate creation of ideal communities
· Socialist: question values of capitalism
· Discussion/practice of radical ideas of sexuality and family. People sympathetic to economy ideas were not sympathetic to free love and open family.
Saint-Simonianism
· Count Claude Henri de Saint-Simon – earliest socialist pioneer; young liberal French aristocrat
· Rational management – private wealth and enterprise administered by someone other than owner. Ideological factor of technocracy.
· Persuaded few, but Saint-Simon centers lively places of discourse
Owenism
· Robert Own, self-made cotton manufacturer
· Believed Lockean environment psychology: change environment – change character
· No incompatibility between humane workplace and profit
· New Lanark – idea to practice. Good quarters for worker, recreational facilities, education for children, and churches. Rewards for good work, Profitable. Visitor from all over Europe wanted to see his enlightened management.
· Pleaded for reorganization based on his model
· Sold New Lanark; went to States to establish New Harmony, Indiana. Failed due to arguments between members
· Return to Britain; promote Grand National Union – federalize all British trade unions. Collapsed with all other labor organizations in 1830s.
Fourierism
· Charles Fourier, French intellectual counterpart to Owne. Never attracted same kind of attention.
· Wrote books and articles; waited for a patron but none came
· Industrial order passions of humans; social discipline crush normal pleasure
· Phalanxes – communities, liberated living replace dull industry
· Boremdom – isolated a key difficulty of modern economic life.
· Saint-Simon, Owen, fourier expected existing government to execute transformation. Didn’t see political problems
· Others pay more attention to politics: 1837 the Organization of Labor by Louis Blanc
Anarchism
· Reject industry and government dominance. Do not exact fit in socialists
· Both violence and non-violence advocated
· Auguste Blanqui favor terror; spend most of adult life in jail
· Pierre-Joseph Proudhon favor peace
Marxism
· Permeate to major continental socialist parties
· Dominate SU after 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, E. Europe, revolutionary movement in (post-) colonial world.
· Not linear path with triumph of Marxism. Had to compete with other socialist ideas.
· Karl Marx born in Prussian Rhineland. Jewish but farther convert to Lutheranism. Judaism no impact.
· University of Berlin – involved in Hegelian philosophy, radical politics
Partnership with Engels
· Friedrich Engels – young middle class German; father own textile factory in Manchester.
· Engels publishes the Condition of Working Class in England – devastating picture in industrial life.
· Asked to write pamphlet for new and short-lived secret Communist League
· The Communist Manifesto. Communist more self-consciously radical than socialist: abolition of private property, not rearrangement. Merely a political tract at time of publication.
· Marx had no impact on 1848 revolutions
Sources of Marx’s Ideas
· German Hegelianism, French utopian socialism, British classical economics.
· Apply Hege’s clash of thesis/antithesis to concrete historical, social, economic developments.
· Conflict between dominate and subordinate groups lead to emergence of new dominate group. Repeat.
· French utopian socialist raise issue to redistribution and problems of capitalist society
· Economics produce analytical tols of scientific examination of capitalist society.
· Put new industrial work force as single most important force of contemporary history
· Equate fate of proletariats with fat if humanity
Revolution through Class Conflict
· History is record of mankind’s struggle to produce goods necessary for survival
· Basic productive process determines structure and values of society
· Historically, always conflict between owners of means of means of production and subordinates
· Necessary conflict is engine for development – not accidental byproduct
· Capitalism makes radical transformation in evitable
· Class struggle simplified to bourgeoisie and proletariat
· Character of capitalism sharpen struggle steadily increase in proletariat ranks. Competition squeezes out smaller bourgeoisie. Competition among remaining giants leads to intense oppression. Finally, revolution.
· Workers organize means of production on proletariat dictatorship, eventually giving way to property less and classless communist society.
· Differ from past: culmination of proletariat and bourgeoisie is new society. Victorious proletariat by its nature could not an oppressor.
· Condition Marx’s analysis – much unemployment and deprivation
· Later, capitalism did not collapse – middle class not proletarianized. Industry benefited more and more.
· Nevertheless, Marxism capture imaginations of socialists and workers. Appeared to be based empirically. Scientific claim garnered appeal. At core, attraction was utopian vision of human liberation.
Sunday, January 9, 2011
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (pg764-769)
1848: Year of Revolutions
- Series of liberal and nationalist revolutions across Continent. No single factor, similar conditions everywhere
- Not working class; bourgeoisie liberals
- Repeal of Corn Laws, peaceful Anti-Corn Law League encourage
- Appeal to working class, but ideal contradicted – working class didn’t want liberal government. Shook order, then allies fight
- Nationalism powerful factor outside France. Austria most endangered
- Stunning: never before so many uprising in one year
- False: failed to establish genuinely liberal or national states. Conservative order stronger than anyone expected
- Liberal activists discover no longer could push reform w/o social reform. Isolate selves from working class – easy prey for reactionary armies
France: The Second Republic and Louise Napoleon
- Criticizes government; demand admission for them and bourgeoisie supporters in political process
- Poor harvests of 1846, 7 bring proletariat support
- Government prohibit banquet; large one scheduled for 22
- Workers parade through streets demand reform and kick out Guizot
- More crowds; Guizot resign afternoon. Barricade; clash with guard
- Louis Philippe abdicate and flee to England
The National Assembly and Paris Workers
- Alphonse de Lamartine leader, liberal opposition poet. Provisional government
- Intend for election for assembly for republican constitution
- Louis Blane demand social revolution, representation in cabinet
- Provisional government organize national workshops to provide work and relief for 1000s
- Election universal male suffrage new National Assembly
- May, troops and workers fight – delay new admission into workshops and kicked out many already in
- General Louis Cavaignac with conservative countryside troops destroy barricade and quell revots. Over 3,400 killed
Emergence of Louis Napoleon
- June days confirm dominance of conservative. Want state safe for small property
- Late 1848 elect. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of emperor
- Adventurer living outside France. Attempted to lead coup against July Monarchy twice
- “Little Napoleon” doom second Republic; care more about ego than republic
- 7.5 M support him; 600000 resist
- Empire, Emperor Napoleon 3
Frenchwomen in 1848
- Major feminist activity. Seize collapse of July Monarchy to demand reform
- Joined many clubs – some emphasized women rights
- Some tried unsuccessfully to vote 1848
- Both bourgeoisie and proletariat women
- Most radical called Vesuvians. Demands of women erupt like lava
- Use new liberal freedoms for their cause: Voix des femmes newspaper
- Fate similar to proletarians: defeated
- Feminist movement eradicated
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (pg769-776, 776-777)
The Habsburg Empire: Nationalism Resisted
- Vulnerable to every king of revolution: reject liberal institution, serfdom, across national lines.
- In 1840w, even Metternich urge reform, but none coming
- Confront rebellion in Vienna, Prague, Hungary, Italy
The Vienna Uprising
- Louis Kossuth, Maygar nationalist, member of Hungarian diet call for Hungarian independence and demand responsible ministry under Habsburg dynasty
- Inspired students led disturbance. Army failed; Metternich resigned and fled
- Feeble Emperor Ferdinand promise moderate liberal constitution
- Radical students from democratic clubs, unsatisfied
- Emperor and court flee to Innsbruck. Vienna government in committee of 200 proletariat sympathizers
- Fear serf uprising most. Already, come invade manors and burn property records/
- Emancipated serfs almost immediately after Vienna. Smother; serfs little reason to support urban revolutions
The Magyar Revolt
- Embolden Hungarians; Magyar leaders liberal, supported by nobles who wanted privileges guaranteed against Vienna government
- March Laws passes by the Diet
- Ferdinand approve because he couldn’t stop it
- Separate Hungarian state: local autonomy but Ferdinand still emperor
Czech Nationalism
- Bohemia, Moravia autonomous Slavic state similar to Hungary
- Conflict immediately between Czechs and Germans in region
- 1st Pan Slavic congress meet in Prague in June
Rebellion in Northern Italy
- Revolt in Milan
- Austrian General Count Radetezky retreated
- Rebels aided by King Charles Albert of Pirdmont – wanted to annex Lombardy
- Austrians lose until July, with reinforcement; Redetezky suppress revolt. Held Austrian position
- Vienna, Hungary recapture in summer
- Ferdinand, too feeble to govern, abdicate in favor of nephew Francis Joseph
Italy: Republicanism Defeated
- Italians hoped King Charles Albert of Piedmont drives Austrians and unify Italy. Defeat disappointed
- Liberal, nationalist hopes shift to Pope Pius 9
- Piedmont radicals force Charles Albert to continue patriotic war against Austria
- Pius 9 renounce liberalism. Became an arch conservative
Germany: Liberalism Frustrated
- Insurrections for Germany unity in Wurtemburg, Saxony, Hanover, Bavaria – King Ludwig 1 abdicate in favor of his son
- Major revolution in Prussia
Revolution in Prussia
- Disturbance in Berlin. Frederick William 4 believes foreign conspiracy; refused to use troops against Berliners, announce limited reforms. But several citizens killed 18 Mar at square near palace
- Still hesitant to use force; government divided and confused
- King called Prussia assembly to write constitution
- Made further concessions, imply Prussia help unify Germany. In practice, Prussia monarchy fallen.
- Appointed cabinet led by David Hansemann – widely respected moderate liberal
- Prussian constituent assembly radical and democratic. King, conservative supporters ignore it. Liveral ministry resigned; conservative one replaced it.
- Assembly dissolved; monarchy proclaims own constitution. Three-class voting: all adult males vote, but based on ability to pay taxes
The Frankfurt Parliament
- Intended to write moderately liberal constitution for united Germany
- Alienate conservatives and proletariats. Beginning of profound split between liberals and proletariats. Conservatives play on this division.
- Split on unification: grossdeutsch favor Austrian inclusion; kleinduetsch exclusion. Prevail because Austria rejects German unification – too many other nationality problems. Looked in Prussia for leadership
- Constitution. Offered crown of united Germany to Frederick William 4, but rejected: rule by grace of God, not permission of man
- Liberals prove hesitant, awkward, unrealistic, dependent on army of monarchy
- Revolutions tended franchise in some German states and established conservative constitutions. Far cry from March 1848 hopes.
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